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Systems Analysis
and Design (CACS203)
•
BCA Third Semester
•
Compiled By G.P.Lekhak
1
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BCA Third Semester
System Analysis and Design
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Central Repository
- CASE tools require a central repository,
which can serve as a source of common, integrated and
consistent information. Central repository is a central place of
storage where product specifications, requirement
documents, related reports and diagrams, other useful
information regarding management is stored. Central
repository also serves as data dictionary.
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The Systems Development Environment
Introduction
•
Information Systems Analysis and Design
(
ISAD
)
–
Complex organizational process.
–
Used to develop and maintain computer-based
information systems.
–
Used by a team of business and systems
professionals.
–
An organizational improvement process (respond
to and anticipate problems).
–
Uses technology (Internet, WWW marketing,
online business, eBay, Amazon.com etc).
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•
Figure 1-1 An organizational approach to systems analysis and
design is driven by methodologies, techniques, and tools
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•
An output of system analysis and design is
application software
.
•
Methodologies
are comprehensive, multiple-step
approaches to system development.
Methodologies uses different techniques.
•
Techniques
are particular processes that you as
an analyst, will follow to ensure your work is well
thought out, complete, and comprehensive to
others on your project team. Eg: conducting
interviews to determine what your system should
do, diagramming the
system’s
logic, designing the
reports your system will generate.
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•
Tools are computer programs that make it
easy to use and benefit from techniques.
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A Modern Approach to Systems Analysis and Design
•
1950s: All applications had to be developed in
machine language or assembly language. They
had to be developed from scratch because due to
the absence of software industry.
•
1960s: Smaller, faster, less expensive computers,
beginning of the software industry, use in-house
development.
•
1970s: Realized how expensive to develop
customized information system for every
application , started development of database
management system.
•
1980s: , The software industry expended greatly,
CASE(computer aided software engineering)
tools.
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•
Started writing application software in oop
languages, graphics were used, developed less
software in-house and bought more from
software vendors
.
•
1990s: focus on system integration,
GUI(Graphical user interface) applications,
client/server platforms, Internet.
•
The new century: Web application
development, wireless PDAs (personal digital
assistants, eg pocket PCs), ASP(application
service provider).
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Application Software
–
Computer software designed to support
organizational functions or processes.
•
Systems Analyst
–
Organizational role most responsible for analysis
and design of information systems.
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Types of Information Systems
and Systems Development
•
Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)
–
Automate handling of data about business
activities (transactions)
–
Process orientation
•
Management Information Systems (MIS)
–
Converts raw data from transaction processing
system into meaningful form
–
Data orientation
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•
Decision Support Systems (DSS)
–
Designed to help decision makers
–
Provides interactive environment for decision
making
–
Involves data warehouses, executive information
systems (EIS)
–
Database, model base, user dialogue
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Summary of Information Systems Types
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Developing Information Systems
•
System Development Methodology
is a
standard process followed in an organization
to conduct all the steps necessary to analyze,
design, implement, and maintain information
systems.
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Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
•
Traditional methodology used to develop, maintain,
and replace information systems.
•
Phases in SDLC:
–
Planning
–
Analysis
–
Design
–
Implementation
–
Maintenance
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Standard and Evolutionary Views of SDLC
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Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) (Cont.)
•
Planning
–
an
organization’s
total information
system needs are identified, analyzed, prioritized,
and arranged. The outcome of the project
identification and selection process is a
determination of which system development
project should be undertaken by the
organization, at least in terms of initial study.
•
Major activities during planning are:
i)
Investigation of the system problem or
opportunity.
ii)
presentation of reasons why the
system should or should not be developed by the
organization. Determining the
scope
of the
proposed system
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•
Also produce a specific plan for the proposed
project the team will follow. This specifies the
time and resources needed for execution.
•
Also identify whether the costs of developing
system would give benefit.
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•
The second phase in the SDLC is
analysis.
During this
phase, the analyst thoroughly
studies the
organization’s
current procedures and the information systems used
to perform organizational tasks. Analysis has
two
sub
phases
. The first is requirements determination. In this
sub phase, analysts work with users to determine what
the users want from a proposed system. The
requirements determination process usually involves a
careful study of any current systems, manual and
computerized, that might be replaced or enhanced as
part of the project. In the second part of analysis,
analysts study the requirements and structure them
according to their interrelationships and eliminate
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any redundancies. The output of the analysis
phase is a description of (but not a detailed
design for) the alternative solution recommended
by the analysis team. Once the recommendation
is accepted by those with funding authority, the
analysts can begin to make plans to acquire any
hardware and system software necessary to build
or operate the system as proposed.
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•
The third phase in the SDLC is
design. During design,
analysts convert the
description of the recommended
alternative solution into
logical
and then
physical
system
specifications. The analysts must design all aspects of the
system, from input and output screens to reports, databases,
and computer processes. The analysts must then provide the
physical specifics of the system they have designed, either as
a model or as detailed documentation, to guide those who
will build the new system.
•
That part of the design process that is independent of any
specific hardware or software platform is referred to as
logical design. Theoretically, the system could
be
implemented on any hardware and systems software. The
idea is to make sure that the system functions as intended.
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•
Once the overall high-level design of the system is worked out,
the analysts begin turning
logical specifications into physical
ones
. This process is referred to as
physical design.
As part of
physical design, analysts design the various parts of the system
to perform the physical operations necessary to facilitate data
capture, processing, and information output. This can be done
in many ways, from creating a working model of the system to
be implemented to writing detailed specifications describing all
the different parts of the system and how they should be built.
In many cases, the working model becomes the basis for the
actual system to be used. During physical design, the analyst
team must determine many of the physical details necessary to
build the final system, from the programming language the
system will be written in, to the database system that will store
the data, to the hardware platform on which the system will
run.
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•
Often the choices of language, database, and platform
are already decided by the organization or by the client,
and at this point these information technologies must be
taken into account in the physical design of the system.
The final product of the design phase is the physical
system specifications in a form ready to be turned over to
programmers and other system builders for construction.
Figure 1-6 illustrates the differences between logical and
physical design
.
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•
The fourth phase in the SDLC is
implementation.
The physical
system specifications, whether in the form of a detailed model or
as detailed written specifications, are turned over to programmers
as the first part of the implementation phase. During
implementation, analysts turn system specifications into a working
system that is tested and then put into use.
Implementation
includes coding, testing, and installation
.
•
During
coding
, programmers write the programs that make up the
system. Sometimes the code is generated by the same system used
to build the detailed model of the system.
•
During
testing
, programmers and analysts test individual programs
and the entire system in order to find and correct errors.
•
During
installation
, the new system becomes part of the daily
activities of the organization. Application software is installed, or
loaded, on existing or new hardware, and users are introduced to
the new system and trained. Testing and installation should be
planned for as early as the project initiation and planning phase;
both testing and installation require extensive analysis in order to
develop exactly the right approach
.
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Finalization of documentation, training programs
•
Note that documentation and training programs are finalized
during implementation; documentation is produced
throughout the life cycle.
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•
The fifth and final phase in the SDLC is
maintenance. When a
system (including
its training, documentation, and support) is
operating in an organization, users sometimes find problems with
how it works and often think of better ways to perform its
functions. Also, the
organization’s
needs with respect to the
system change over time.
In maintenance, programmers make
the changes that users ask for and modify the system
to reflect
evolving business conditions. These changes are necessary to
keep the system running and useful. In a sense, maintenance is
not a separate phase but a repetition of the other life cycle
phases required to study and implement the needed changes.
The amount of time and effort devoted to maintenance depends
a great deal on the performance of the previous phases of the life
cycle.
when an information system is no longer performing as desired,
when maintenance costs become prohibitive, or when an
organization’s
needs have changed substantially.
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Such problems indicate that it is time to begin designing the
system’s
replacement, thereby completing the loop and
starting the life cycle over again.
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The heart Of The System Development Proscess
•
Do your self……..
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The Heart of the Systems Development Process
Current practice combines analysis, design, and implementation into a
single iterative and parallel process of activities
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Traditional Waterfall SDLC
•
Treat each phase as complete unto itself, never to be revisited
once finished.
•
Feedback came to be ignored in implementation.
•
Traditionally, one phase ended and another began once a
milestone had been reached.
•
System requirements
“locked
in”
after being determined (can't
change). Once the milestone had been reached and the new phase
initiated, it became difficult to go back. The enormous amount
of effort and time necessary to implement a specific design meant
that it would be very expensive to make changes in a system once
it was developed.
•
Limited user involvement (only in requirements phase).
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•
Yet another criticism of the traditional waterfall SDLC is that the
role of system users or customers was narrowly defined (Kay,
2002). User roles were often relegated to the requirements
determination or analysis phases of the project, where it was
assumed that all of the requirements could be specified in
advance. Such an assumption, coupled with limited user
involvement, reinforced the tendency of the waterfall model to
lock in requirements too early, even after business conditions had
changed.
•
In addition, under the traditional waterfall approach, nebulous and
intangible processes such as analysis and design are given hard-
and-fast dates for completion, and success is overwhelmingly
measured by whether those dates are met.
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The focus on milestone deadlines, instead of on obtaining and
interpreting feedback from the development process, leads to too
little focus on doing good analysis and design. The focus on
deadlines leads to systems that do not match
users’
needs and that
require extensive maintenance, unnecessarily increasing
development costs. Finding and fixing a software problem after the
delivery of the system is often far more expensive than finding and
fixing it during analysis and design (Griss, 2003). The result of
focusing on deadlines rather than on good practice is unnecessary
rework and maintenance effort, both of which are expensive.
According to some estimates, maintenance costs account for 40 to
70 percent of systems development costs (Dorfman and Thayer,
1997). Given these problems, people working in systems
development began to look for better ways to conduct systems
analysis and design.
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Different Approaches to Improving Development
•
Attempts to make systems development less of an art and
more of a science are usually referred to as
systems
engineering or software engineering
•
CASE TOOLS
•
Rapid Application Development
•
Service-Oriented Architecture
•
Agile Methodologies
•
eXtreme Programming
•
Object-Oriented Analysis And Design
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CASE TOOLS
:
CASE tools have been developed for internal use
and for sale by several leading firms. CASE tools are used to
support a wide variety of SDLC activities. CASE tools can be
used to help in multiple phases of the SDLC: project
identification and
selection, project initiation and planning, analysis, design, and
implementation and maintenance. An integrated and
standard database called a
repository
is the common
method for providing product and tool integration, and has
been a key factor in enabling CASE to more easily manage
larger, more complex projects and to seamlessly
(to be full of
good material and ideas to use
) integrate data across various
tools and products. The idea of a central repository of
information about a project is not new
—
the manual form of
such a repository is called a project dictionary or workbook.
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The general types of CASE tools are listed below:
•
Diagramming tools enable system process, data, and control
structures to be represented graphically.
•
Computer display and report generators help prototype how systems
“look
and feel.
”
Display (or form) and report generators make it easier
for the systems analyst to identify data requirements and
relationships.
•
Analysis tools automatically check for incomplete, inconsistent, or
incorrect specifications in diagrams, forms, and reports.
•
A central repository enables the integrated storage of specifications,
diagrams, reports, and project management information.
•
Documentation generators produce technical and user
documentation in standard formats.
•
Code generators enable the automatic generation of program and
database definition code directly from the design documents,
diagrams, forms, and reports.
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CASE helps programmers and analysts do their jobs more
efficiently and more effectively by automating routine
tasks. However, many organizations that use CASE tools
do not use them to support all phases of the SDLC. Some
organizations may extensively use the diagramming
features but not the code generators. Table 1-2
summarizes how CASE is commonly used within each
SDLC phase. There are a variety of reasons why
organizations choose to adopt CASE partially or not use it
at all. These reasons range from a lack of vision for
applying CASE to all aspects of the SDLC, to the belief
that CASE technology will fail to meet an organization’s
unique system development needs. In some
organizations, CASE has been extremely successful,
whereas in others it has not
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•
CASE stands for
C
omputer
A
ided
S
oftware
E
ngineering. It means, development
and maintenance of software projects with help of various automated software
tools.
•
CASE Tools
•
CASE tools are set of software application programs, which are used to
automate SDLC activities. CASE tools are used by software project managers,
analysts and engineers to develop software system.
•
There are number of CASE tools available to simplify various stages of Software
Development Life Cycle such as Analysis tools, Design tools, Project
management tools, Database Management tools, Documentation tools are to
name a few.
•
Use of CASE tools accelerates the development of project to produce desired
result and helps to uncover flaws before moving ahead with next stage in
software development
.
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Central Repository
- CASE tools require a central repository, which can serve as
a source of common, integrated and consistent information. Central repository
is a central place of storage where product specifications, requirement
documents, related reports and diagrams, other useful information regarding
management is stored. Central repository also serves as data dictionary.
•
Upper Case Tools
- Upper CASE tools are used in planning, analysis and design
stages of SDLC.
•
Lower Case Tools
- Lower CASE tools are used in implementation, testing and
maintenance.
•
Integrated Case Tools
- Integrated CASE tools are helpful in all the stages of
SDLC, from Requirement gathering to Testing and documentation.
•
CASE tools can be grouped together if they have similar functionality, process
activities and capability of getting integrated with other tools.
•
Diagram tools : These tools are used to represent system components, data and
control flow among various software components and system structure in a
graphical form. For example, Flow Chart Maker tool for creating state-of-the-art
flowcharts.
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Design Tools : These tools help software designers to design the block structure
of the software, which may further be broken down in smaller modules using
refinement techniques. These tools provides detailing of each module and
interconnections among modules. For example, Animated Software Design
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Agile Methodologies:
•
According to Fowler (2003), the Agile Methodologies share three
key principles: (1) a focus on
adaptive
rather than
predictive
methodologies, (2) a focus on
people
rather than
roles
, and (3) a
focus on
self-adaptive
processes.
(1)
Agile Methodologies share
iterative development
(Martin, 1999).
Iterative development focuses on the frequent production
of working versions of a system that have a subset of the total
number of required features. Iterative development provides
feedback to customers and developers alike.
(2)
Systems analyst or tester or manager, are not as important as the
individuals
who fill those roles. Fowler argues that the application
of engineering principles to systems development has resulted in a
view of people as
interchangeable units
instead of a view of
people as
talented
individuals, each bringing something unique to
the development team.
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(3)
The Agile Methodologies promote a
self-adaptive
software
development process. As software is developed, the process used to
develop it should be refined and improved. Development teams can do
this through a review process, often associated with the completion of
iterations. The implication is that, as processes are adapted, one would
not expect to find a single monolithic methodology within a given
corporation or enterprise. Instead, one would find many variations of the
methodology, each of which reflects the particular talents and
experience of the team using it.
•
Agile Methodologies are not for every project. Fowler (2003)
recommends an agile or adaptive process if your project involves
•
Unpredictable or dynamic requirements
,
•
Responsible and motivated developers
, and
•
Customers who understand the process and will get involved.
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What is Agile?
•
The word ‘agile’ means − Able to move your body quickly and easily.
•
Able to think quickly and clearly.
•
In business, ‘agile’ is used for describing ways of planning and doing work
wherein it is understood that making changes as needed is an important part of
the job.
Business‘agililty’ means that a company is always in a position to take
account of the market changes.
•
Ref: Cambridge Dictionaries online.
•
In software development, the term ‘agile’ is adapted to mean ‘the ability to
respond to changes − changes from Requirements, Technology and People.
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eXtreme programming:
eXtreme Programming is an
approach to software development put together by Beck
and Andres (2004). It is distinguished by
•
its short cycles
•
incremental planning approach
•
focus on automated tests written by programmers and
customers
to monitor the development process.
•
reliance on an
evolutionary approach
to development
that lasts throughout the lifetime of the system.
•
use of two-person programming teams.
•
Planning
,
analysis
,
design
, and
construction
are all fused
into a single phase of activity.
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•
Under this approach, coding and testing are intimately
related parts of the same process. The programmers who
write the code also develop the tests. The emphasis is on
testing those things that can break or go wrong, not on
testing everything.
•
Code is tested very soon after it is written. The overall
philosophy behind eXtreme Programming is that the
code will be integrated into the system it is being
developed for and tested within a few hours after it has
been written. If all the tests run successfully,
then development proceeds. If not, the code is reworked
until the tests are successful.
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Another part of eXtreme Programming that makes the
code-and-test process work more smoothly is the practice
of pair programming. All coding and testing is done by two
people working together to write code and develop tests.
Beck
says that pair programming is not one person typing
while the other one watches; rather, the two programmers
work together on the problem they are trying to solve,
exchanging information and insight and sharing skills.
Compared to traditional coding practices, the advantages of
pair programming include: (1)
more (and better)
communication
among developers
, (2)
higher levels of productivity, (3)
higher-quality code
, and (4) reinforcement of the other
practices in eXtreme Programming, such as the code and-
test discipline (Beck & Andres, 2004). Although the eXtreme
Programming process has its advantages, just as with any
other approach to systems development, it is not for
everyone and is not applicable to every project.
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Extreme Programming − A way to handle the common shortcomings
•
Software Engineering involves
−
•
Creativity
•
Learning and improving through trials and errors
•
Iterations
•
Extreme Programming builds on these activities and coding. It is the
detailed (not the only) design activity with multiple tight feedback loops
through effective implementation, testing and refactoring continuously.
•
Extreme Programming is based on the following values
−
•
Communication
•
Simplicity
•
Feedback
•
Courage
•
Respect
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What is Extreme Programming?
•
XP is a lightweight, efficient, low-risk, flexible, predictable, scientific, and
fun way to develop a software.
•
e
X
treme
P
rogramming (XP) was conceived and developed to address the
specific needs of software development by small teams in the face of
vague and changing requirements.
•
Extreme Programming is one of the Agile software development
methodologies. It provides values and principles to guide the team
behavior. The team is expected to self-organize. Extreme Programming
provides specific core practices where
−
•
Each practice is simple and self-complete.
•
Combination of practices produces more complex and emergent
behavior.
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Why is it called
“Extreme?”
•
Extreme Programming takes the effective principles and practices to extreme
levels.
•
Code reviews are effective as the code is reviewed all the time.
•
Testing is effective as there is continuous regression and testing.
•
Design is effective as everybody needs to do refactoring daily.
•
Integration testing is important as integrate and test several times a day.
•
Short iterations are effective as the planning game for release planning and
iteration planning.
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Object-Oriented Analysis And Design:
•
Object-oriented (O-O) analysis and design is an approach that is intended to
facilitate the development of systems that must change rapidly in response to
dynamic business environments. Chapter 10 helps you understand what object-
oriented systems analysis and design is, how it differs from the structured
approach of the SDLC, and when it may be appropriate to use an object-oriented
approach.
•
Object-oriented techniques are thought to work well in situations in which
complicated information systems are undergoing continuous maintenance,
adaptation, and redesign. Object-oriented approaches use the industry standard
for modeling object-oriented systems, called the unified modeling language
(UML), to break down a system into a use case model.
•
Object-oriented programming differs from traditional procedural programming
by examining objects that are part of a system. Each object is a computer
representation of some actual thing or event. Objects may be customers, items,
orders, and so on. Objects are represented by and grouped into classes that are
optimal for reuse and maintainability. A class defines the set of shared attributes
and behaviors found in each object in the class.
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The
RAD (Rapid Application Development)
model is based on prototyping
and iterative development with no specific planning involved. The process of
writing the software itself involves the planning required for developing the
product.
•
Rapid Application Development focuses on gathering customer
requirements through workshops or focus groups, early testing of the
prototypes by the customer using iterative concept, reuse of the existing
prototypes (components), continuous integration and rapid delivery.
•
What is RAD?
•
Rapid application development is a software development methodology that
uses minimal planning in favor of rapid prototyping. A prototype is a working
model that is functionally equivalent to a component of the product.
•
In the RAD model, the functional modules are developed in parallel as
prototypes and are integrated to make the complete product for faster
product delivery. Since there is no detailed preplanning, it makes it easier to
incorporate the changes within the development process.
•
RAD projects follow iterative and incremental model and have small teams
comprising of developers, domain experts, customer representatives and
other IT resources working progressively on their component or prototype.
•
The most important aspect for this model to be successful is to make sure
that the prototypes developed are reusable
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Object-Oriented Analysis And Design:
•
The object-oriented approach combines data and processes
(
called methods
) into single entities called
objects. Objects
usually
correspond to the real things an information system
deals with, such as customers, suppliers, contracts, and rental
agreements.
•
Putting data and processes together in one place recognizes
the fact that there are a limited number of operations for any
given data structure, and the object-oriented approach makes
sense even though typical systems development keeps data
and processes independent of each other.
•
The goal of OOAD is to make systems elements more
reusable, thus improving system quality and the productivity
of systems analysis and design.
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Another key idea behind object orientation is
inheritance.
Inheritance allows the creation of new classes that share some of
the characteristics of existing classes.
•
For example, from a class
of objects called
“person,”
you can use
inheritance to define another class
of objects
called
“customer
.
”
•
Objects of the class
“customer”
would share certain characteristics
with
objects of
the class
“person”
: They would both have names,
addresses, phone numbers, and so on. Because
“person”
is the
more general class and
“customer”
is more specific, every
customer is a person but not every person is a customer.
•
The object-oriented approach to systems development shares the
iterative development approach of the Agile Methodologies.
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One of the most popular realizations of the iterative approach for object-
oriented development is the
Rational Unified Process (RUP),
which is
based on an
iterative
,
incremental
approach to systems development.
RUP has four phases:
inception
,
elaboration
,
construction
, and
transition
(see Figure 1-11).
•
In the
inception
phase, analysts define the scope, determine the
feasibility of the project, understand user requirements, and prepare a
software development plan. In the
elaboration
phase, analysts detail
user requirements and develop a baseline architecture. Analysis and
design activities constitute the bulk of the elaboration phase. In the
construction phase
, the software is actually coded, tested, and
documented.
•
In the
transition
phase, the system is deployed, and the users are trained
and supported. As is evident from Figure 1-11, the construction phase is
generally the longest and the most resource intensive. The elaboration
phase is also long, but less resource intensive. The transition phase is
resource intensive but short. The inception phase is short and the least
resource intensive. The areas of the rectangles in Figure 1-11 provide an
estimate of the overall resources allocated to each phase.
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Each phase can be further divided into iterations. The software is
developed incrementally as a series of iterations. The
inception
phase
will generally entail a
single
iteration. The scope and
feasibility of the project is determined at this stage. The
elaboration
phase may have one or two iterations and is generally
considered the most critical of the four phases (Kruchten, 2000).
The elaboration phase is mainly about systems analysis and design,
although other activities are also involved. At the end of the
elaboration phase, the architecture of the project should have
been developed
. The architecture includes a vision of the product,
an executable demonstration of the critical pieces, a detailed
glossary and a preliminary user manual, a detailed construction
plan, and a revised estimate of planned expenditures.
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•
RAD
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Rapid Application Development (RAD) model has the following
phases
−
•
Requirements Planning phase
−
In the requirements planning
phase, aworkshop needs to be conducted to discuss business
problems in a structured manner.
•
User Description phase
−
In the User Description phase,
automated tools are used to capture information from users.
•
Construction phase
−
In the Construction phase, productivity tools,
such as code generators, screen generators, etc. are used inside a
time-box, with a
“Do
until
Done”
approach.
•
Cut Over phase
−
In the Cut over phase, installation of the system,
user acceptance testing and user training are performed.
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Rapid Application Development Model
–
Strengths
•
The advantages or strengths of the Rapid Application Development
model are as follows
−
•
Reduced cycle time and improved productivity with fewer team
members would mean lower costs.
•
Customer’s
involvement throughout the complete cycle minimizes the
risk of not achieving customer satisfaction and business value.
•
Focus moves to the code in a what-you-see-is-what-you-get mode
(WYSIWYG). This brings clarity on what is being built is the right thing.
•
Uses modelling concepts to capture information about business, data,
and processes
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Rapid Application Development Model
–
Weaknesses
•
The disadvantages or strengths of Rapid Application Development model
are as follows
−
•
Accelerated development process must give quick responses to the user.
•
Risk of never achieving closure.
•
Hard to use with legacy systems.
•
Developers and customers must be committed to rapid-fire activities in
an abbreviated time frame.
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RAD model is Rapid Application Development model. It is a type
of
incremental model
.
In
RAD
model
the
components
or
functions
are
developed
in
parallel
as
if
they
were
mini
projects
.
The
developments
are
time
boxed,
delivered
and
then
assembled
into
a
working
prototype
.
This
can
quickly
give
the
customer
something
to
see
and
use
and
to
provide
feedback
regarding
the
delivery
and
their
requirements
.
•
Advantages of the RAD model:
•
Reduced development time.
•
Increases reusability of components
•
Quick initial reviews occur
•
Encourages customer feedback
•
Integration from very beginning solves a lot of
integration issues
.
•
Disadvantages of RAD model:
•
Depends on strong team and individual performances for identifying
business requirements.
•
Only system that can be modularized can be built using RAD
•
Requires highly skilled developers/designers.
•
High dependency on modeling skills
•
Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost of modeling and automated code
generation is very high.
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When to use RAD model:
•
RAD should be used when there is a need to create a system that can be
modularized in 2-3 months of time.
•
It should be used if
there’s
high availability of designers for modeling and
the budget is high enough to afford their cost along with the cost of
automated code generating tools.
•
RAD
SDLC model
should
be
chosen
only
if
resources
with
high
business
knowledge
are
available
and
there
is
a
need
to
produce
the
system
in
a
short
span
of
time
(
2
-
3
months)
.
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Service-Oriented Architecture:
It is modern and new concept
of software development . It make individual SOA services are
unassociated or loosely coupled to another. Each service executes
one action. Each service can be used in other application within
the organization or even in other organizations.
•
We can say that service-oriented architecture is simply a group of
services that can be called upon to provide specific functions.
Rather than including calls to other services, a service can use
certain defined protocols so that it can communicate with other
services.
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Service-Oriented Architecture
•
Advantages
•
SOA allows reuse the service of an existing system alternately building the new
system.
•
It allows plugging in new services or upgrading existing services to place the new
business requirements.
•
It can enhance the performance, functionality of a service and easily makes the
system upgrade.
•
SOA has capability to adjust or modify the different external environments and
large applications can be managed easily.
•
The companies can develop applications without replacing the existing
applications.
•
It provides reliable applications in which you can test and debug the
independent services easily as compared to large number of code.
•
Disadvantages
•
SOA requires high investment cost (means large investment on technology,
development and human resource).
•
There is greater overhead when a service interacts with another service which
increases the response time and machine load while validating the input
parameters.
•
SOA is not suitable for GUI (graphical user interface) applications which will
become more complex when the SOA requires the heavy data exchange.
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The Origins Of Software
•
Introduction
:
If you wanted to write application software, you
did it in-house, and you wrote the software from scratch. Today
there are many different sources of software and firms that
produce software, rather than in the information systems
department of a corporation. But for those of you who do go on to
work in a corporate information systems department, the focus is
no longer exclusively on in-house development.
•
SYSTEMS ACQUISITION:
Internal corporate information
systems departments now spend a smaller and smaller
proportion of their time and effort on developing systems
from scratch. Companies continue to spend relatively little
time and money on traditional software development and
maintenance. Instead, they invest in packaged software,
open-source software, and outsourced services.
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Outsourcing:
If one organization develops or runs a computer
application for another organization, that practice is called
outsourcing. Outsourcing includes a spectrum
of working
arrangements. At one extreme is having a firm develop and run
your application on its computers
—
all you do is supply input and
take output. A common example of such an arrangement is a
company that runs payroll applications for clients so that clients
do not have to develop an independent in-house payroll system.
Instead, they simply provide employee payroll information to the
company, and, for a fee, the company returns completed
paychecks, payroll accounting reports, and tax and other
statements for employees. For many organizations, payroll is a
very cost-effective operation when outsourced in this way
.
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Outsourcing is big business. Some organizations outsource the
information technology (IT) development of many of their IT
functions at a cost of billions of dollars. Most organizations
outsource at least some aspect of their information systems
activities.
•
One example of the extent of outsourcing is
Shell Oil
. In 2008, Shell
signed outsourcing contracts with EDS, T-Systems, and AT&T worth
$3.2 billion USD.
•
Biggest outsourcing companies are
IBM
and
EDS.
•
Some reasons for outsourcing include
• freeing up internal resources,
• increasing the revenue potential of the organization,
• reducing time to market,
• increasing process efficiencies, and
• outsourcing noncore activities.
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Figure 2-1: Sources of Application Software
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•
Sources of Software:
•
We can group the sources of software into
six major
categories:
information technology services firms
,
packaged software producers,
enterprise-wide solutions
,
cloud computing vendors
,
open-source
software, and in-house developers
(Figure 2-1).
•
Information Technology Services Firms
: If a company needs an
information system but does not have the expertise or the personnel to
develop the system in-house the company will likely consult an
information technology services firm. IT services firms help companies
develop custom information systems for internal use, or they develop,
host, and run applications for customers, or they provide other services.
Note in
Table 2-1
that many of the leading software companies in the
world specialize in services, which include custom systems development.
These firms employ people with expertise in the development of
information systems. Their consultants may also have expertise in a
given business area. For example, consultants who work with banks
understand financial institutions as well as information systems.
Consultants use many of the same methodologies, techniques, and tools
that companies use to develop systems in-house.
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Packaged Software Producers:
The growth of the software
industry has been phenomenal since its beginnings in the mid-
1960s. Some of the largest computer companies in the world are
companies that produce software exclusively. A good example is
Microsoft
, probably the best-known software company in the
world.
•
Almost 87 percent of
Microsoft’s
revenue comes from its software
sales, mostly for its Windows operating systems and its personal
productivity software, the Microsoft Office Suite. Also listed in
Table 2-1, Oracle is exclusively a software company known
primarily for its database software, but Oracle also makes
enterprise systems.
•
Another company on the list, SAP, is also a software-focused
company that develops enterprise-wide system solutions.
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Software companies develop what are sometimes called
prepackaged or off-the-shelf systems.
Microsoft’s
Word (Figure 2-
2) and
Intuit’s
Quicken, QuickPay, and QuickBooks are popular
examples of such software.
•
Software companies develop software to run on many different
computer platforms, from microcomputers to large mainframes.
•
The companies range in size from just a few people to thousands of
employees.
•
Software companies consult with system users after the initial
software design has been completed and an early version of the
system has been built. The systems are then tested in actual
organizations to determine whether there are any problems
or if any improvements can be made. Until testing is completed,
the system is not offered for sale to the public.
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Some off-the-shelf software systems cannot be modified to meet
the specific, individual needs of a particular organization. Such
application systems are sometimes called
turnkey systems
. The
producer of a turnkey system will make changes
to the software
only when a substantial number of users ask for a specific change.
•
However, other off-the-shelf application software can be modified
or extended, by the producer or by the user, to more closely fit the
needs of the organization. Even though many organizations
perform similar functions,
no two organizations do the same thing
in quite the same way
. A turnkey system may be good enough for
a certain level of performance, but it will never perfectly match the
way a given organization does business. A reasonable estimate is
that off-the-shelf software can at
best meet 70 percent
of an
organization’s
needs. Thus, even in the
best case, 30 percent
of the
software system does not match the
organization’s
specifications.
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Figure 2-2
A document created in Microsoft’s Word
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Enterprise Solutions Software
•
Many firms have chosen complete software solutions, called enterprise
solutions
or
enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, to support
their operations and business processes. These ERP
software solutions
consist of a series of integrated modules. Each module supports an
individual, traditional business function, such as accounting, distribution,
manufacturing, or human resources. The difference between the
modules and traditional approaches is that the
modules are integrated
to focus on business processes
rather than on
business functional areas
.
For example, a series of modules will support the entire order entry
process, from receiving an order, to adjusting inventory, to shipping to
billing, to after-the-sale service. The traditional approach would use
different systems in different functional areas of the business, such as a
billing system in accounting and an inventory system in the warehouse.
Using enterprise software solutions, a firm can integrate all parts of a
business process in a
unified information system
. All aspects of a single
transaction occur seamlessly
within a single information system
, rather
than as a series of disjointed, separate systems focused on business
functional areas.
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The benefits of the enterprise solutions approach include a single
repository
of data for all aspects of a business process and the flexibility
of the modules. A single repository ensures
more consistent and
accurate data, as well as less maintenance
.
•
The modules are flexible because additional modules can be added as
needed once the basic system is in place. Added modules are
immediately integrated into the existing system. However, there are
disadvantages
to enterprise solutions software.
•
The systems are very complex, so implementation can take a long time to
complete. Organizations typically do not have the necessary expertise in-
house to implement the systems, so they must rely on consultants or
employees of the software vendor, which can be very expensive. In some
cases, organizations must change how they do business in order to
benefit from a migration to enterprise solutions.
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Cloud Computing
:
Another method for organizations to obtain
applications is to rent them or license them from third-party providers
who run the applications at remote sites. Users have access to the
applications through the Internet or through virtual private networks.
The application provider buys, installs, maintains, and upgrades the
applications. Users pay on a per-use basis or they license the software,
typically month to month. Although this practice has been known by
many different names over the years, today it is called
cloud computing.
Cloud computing refers to
the provision of applications over the
Internet, where customers do not have to invest in the
hardware
and
software resources
needed to run and maintain the applications.
You may have seen the Internet referred to as a cloud in other contexts,
which comes from how the Internet is depicted on computer network
diagrams. A well-known example of cloud computing is
Google Apps
,
where users can
share
and
create documents, spreadsheets, and
presentations
(Figure 2-4). Another well-known example is
Salesforce.com
, which provides customer relationship management
software online. Cloud computing encompasses many areas of
technology, including software as a service (often referred to as
SaaS),
which includes Salesforce.com, and hardware as a service, which includes
Amazon Web Services and allows companies to order server capacity and
storage on demand.
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Taking the cloud computing route has its advantages. The top three
reasons for choosing to go with cloud computing, all of which result in
benefits for the company, are
•
(1) freeing internal IT staff
,
•
(2) gaining access to applications faster than via internal development
,
•
(3) achieving lower cost access to corporate-quality applications
.
Especially appealing is the ability to gain access to large and complex
systems without having to go through the expensive and time-consuming
process of implementing the systems themselves in-house.
•
Getting your computing through a cloud also makes it easier to walk
away from an unsatisfactory systems solution. Other reasons include cost
effectiveness, speed to market, and
better
performance
(Moyle
&
Kelley,
2011
)
.
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IT managers do have some concerns about cloud computing
, however.
The primary concern is over
security
. Concerns over security are based
on storing company data on machines one does not own and that others
can access. In fact, the top two reasons for not using cloud services are
concerns about
unauthorized access to proprietary information
and
unauthorized access to customer information
(Moyle & Kelley, 2011).
Another concern is
reliability
. Some warn that the cloud is actually a
network of networks, it is vulnerable to unexpected risks due to its
complexity
(kfc, 2012).
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Open-Source Software
•
Open-source software is unlike the other types of software you
have read about so far. Open-source software is different because
it is freely available, not just the final product but the source code
itself. It is also different because it is developed by a community of
interested people instead of by employees of a particular company.
Open-source software performs the same functions as commercial
software, such as operating systems, e-mail, database systems,
web browsers, and so on. Some of the most well-known and
popular open-source software names are
Linux
, an operating
system;
mySQL
, a database system; and
Firefox
, a web browser.
Open source also applies to software components and objects.
Open source is developed and maintained by communities of
people, and sometimes these communities can be very large.
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If the software is free, you might wonder how anybody makes any
money by developing open-source software. Companies and
individuals can make money with open source in two primary
ways:
•
(1) by providing maintenance and other services or
•
(2) by providing one version of the software free and selling a more
fully featured version.
•
Some open-source solutions have more of an impact on the
software industry than others. Linux, for example, has been very
successful in the server software market, where it is estimated to
have as much as 36 percent of the market share (W3Techs, 2015).
In the desktop operating systems market, Linux has about 1
percent market share. Other open-source software products, such
as mySQL, have also been successful, and open
source’s
share of
the software industry seems destined to continue to grow.
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In-House Development
:
We have talked about several different types
of external organizations that serve as sources of software, but in-house
development remains an option. In-house development has become a
progressively smaller piece of all systems development work that takes
place in and for organizations. As you read earlier in this chapter, internal
corporate information systems departments now spend a smaller and
smaller proportion of their time and effort on developing systems from
scratch. In-house development can lead to a larger maintenance burden
than other development methods, such as
packaged applications
. A
study by
Banker, Davis, and Slaughter
found that using a code generator
as the basis for in-house development was related to an increase in
maintenance hours, whereas using packaged applications was associated
with a decrease in maintenance effort.
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Of course, in-house development need not entail (
to make something
necessary
) development of all of the software that will constitute the
total system.
Hybrid
solutions involving some purchased and some in-
house software components are common. If you choose to acquire
software from outside sources, this choice is made at the end of the
analysis phase.
•
The choice between a package and an external supplier will be
determined by your needs, not by what the supplier has to sell. As we
will discuss, the results of your analysis study will define the type of
product you want to buy and will make working with an external supplier
much easier, more productive, and worthwhile. Table 2-2 compares the
six different software sources discussed in this section.
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REUSE
•
Reuse is the use of previously written software resources in new
applications. Because so many bits and pieces of applications are
relatively generic across applications, it seems intuitive that great savings
can be achieved in many areas if those generic bits and pieces do not
have to be written a new each time they are needed. Reuse should
increase programmer productivity because being able to use existing
software for some functions means they can perform more work in the
same amount of time. Reuse should also decrease development time,
minimizing schedule overruns. Because existing pieces of software have
already been tested, reusing them should also result in higher-quality
software with lower defect rates, decreasing maintenance costs.
•
Advantages:
Less effort, Time-saving, Reduce cost, Increase software
productivity, Utilize fewer resources, Leeds to a better quality software.
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Managing the information system project
•
Introduction
•
In this chapter, we focus on the systems
analyst’s
role as project manager
of an information systems project. Throughout the SDLC, the project
manager is responsible for initiating, planning, executing, and closing
down the systems development project. Project management is arguably
the most important aspect of an information systems development
project. Effective project management helps to ensure that systems
development projects meet customer expectations and are delivered
within budget and time constraints.
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Today, there is a shift in the types of projects most firms are undertaking, which
makes project management much more difficult and even more critical to
project success (Fuller et al., 2008; Schiff, 2014a). For example,
in the past,
organizations focused much of their development on very large, custom-
designed, stand-alone applications
. Today, much of the systems development
effort in organizations focuses on implementing packaged software such as
enterprise resource planning (ERP) and data warehousing systems. Existing
legacy applications are also being modified so that business-to-business
transactions can occur seamlessly over the Internet. New web-based interfaces
are being added to existing legacy systems so that a broader range of users,
often distributed globally, can access corporate information and systems.
Additionally, software developed by global outsourcing partners that must be
integrated into an
organization’s
existing portfolio of applications is now
common practice (Overby, 2013). Working with vendors to supply applications,
with customers or suppliers to integrate systems, or with a broader and more
diverse user community requires that project managers be highly skilled.
Consequently, it is important that you gain an understanding of the project
management process; this will become a critical skill for your future success.
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The
project management process
involves four phases:
1.
Initiating the project
2.
Planning the project
3.
Executing the project
4.
Closing down the project
•
Initiating a project:
During project initiation, the project manager
performs several activities to assess the size, scope, and complexity of
the project and to establish procedures to support subsequent activities.
The types of activities that will perform when initiating a project are
summarized below:
•
1.
Establishing the project initiation team:
This activity involves
organizing project team members to assist in accomplishing the project
initiation
activities
.
(
For
example,
during
the
Purchasing
Fulfillment
System
project
at
PVF,
Chris
Martin
was
assigned
to
support
the
Purchasing
department
.
It
is
a
PVF
policy
that
all
initiation
teams
consist
of
at
least
one
user
representative,
in
this
case
Juanita
Lopez,
and
one
member
of
the
information
systems
(IS)
development
group
.
Therefore,
the
project
initiation
team
consisted
of
Chris
and
Juanita
;
Chris
was
the
project
manager
.
)
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2.
Establishing a relationship with the customer
•
A thorough understanding of your customer builds stronger
partnerships and higher levels of trust.
(
At PVF, management has tried to foster strong working relationships
between business units (like Purchasing) and the IS development group
by assigning a specific individual to work as a liaison between both
groups. Because Chris had been assigned to the Purchasing unit for some
time, he was already aware of some of the problems with the existing
purchasing systems.
PVF’s
policy of assigning specific individuals to each
business unit helped to ensure that both Chris and Juanita were
comfortable working together prior to establishing relationships with
customers
.)
•
3.
Establishing the project initiation plan:
This step defines the activities
required to organize the initiation team while it is working to define the
goals and scope of the project.
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4. Establishing management procedures
•
Successful projects require the development of effective management
procedures
.
•
5. Establishing the project management environment and project
workbook
. The focus of this activity is to collect and organize the tools
that you will use while managing the project and to construct the project
workbook.
Diagrams, charts, and system descriptions provide much of
the project workbook contents. Thus, the project workbook serves as a
repository for all project correspondence, inputs, outputs, deliverables,
procedures, and standards established by the project team.
•
6. Developing the project charter
. The project charter is a short (typically
one page), high-level document prepared for the customer that describes
what the project will deliver and outlines many of the key elements of
the project.
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Planning the project
•
Research has found a positive relationship between effective project
planning and positive project outcomes
. Project planning involves
defining clear, discrete activities and the work needed to complete each
activity within a single project. It often requires you to make numerous
assumptions about the availability of resources such as hardware,
software, and personnel. It is much easier to plan nearer-term activities
than those occurring in the future. (
In actual fact, you often have to
construct longer-term plans that are more general in scope and nearer-
term plans that are more detailed. The repetitive nature of the project
management process requires that plans be constantly monitored
throughout the project and periodically updated (usually after each
phase), based upon the most recent information.)
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1. Describing project scope, alternatives, and feasibility
•
The purpose of this activity is to understand the content and complexity of the
project
. Within
PVF’s
systems development methodology, one of the first
meetings must focus on defining a
project’s
scope. Although project scope
information was not included in the SSR developed by Chris and Juanita, it was
important that both shared the
same vision for the project before moving
too far along
. During this activity, you should reach agreement on the
following questions:
•
What problem or opportunity does the project address?
•
What are the quantifiable results to be achieved?
•
What needs to be done?
•
How will success be measured?
•
How will we know when we are finished?
After defining the scope of the project, your next objective is to identify
and document general alternative solutions for the current business
problem or
opportunity. You must then assess (
to judge or decide value or
importance
) the feasibility of each alternative solution and choose which
to consider during subsequent SDLC phases.
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At the start of project, there is no idea of doing work, every thing is unknown so
detailed plan is needed to do every step. But after some time ,that is week or
month, people gets idea of project scheduling and can do some steps on the
basis of previous step or his/her own creativity.
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•
2. Dividing the project into manageable tasks
.
This is a critical activity during the project planning process. Here, you must divide
the entire project into manageable tasks and then logically order them to ensure a
smooth evolution between tasks.
For example, suppose that you are working on a new development project and
need to collect system requirements by interviewing users of the new system
and reviewing reports they currently use to do their job. A work breakdown for
these activities is represented in a Gantt chart in Figure 3-10. A
Gantt chart is a
graphical representation of a project that shows each task as a horizontal bar
whose length is proportional to its time for completion. Different colors, shades,
or shapes can be used to highlight each kind of task. For example, those
activities on the critical path (defined later) may be in red and a summary task
could have a special bar. Note that the
black horizontal bars
—
rows 1, 2, and 6 in
Figure 3-10
—
represent summary tasks
. Planned versus actual times or progress
for an activity can be compared by parallel bars of different colors, shades, or
shapes. Gantt charts do not (typically) show how tasks must be ordered
(precedence), but simply show
when an activity should begin and end
. In Figure
3-10, the task duration is shown in the second column by days,
“d,”
.
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FIGURE 3-10
Gantt chart showing project tasks, duration times for those tasks, and predecessors
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•
3. Estimating resources and creating a resource plan
The goal of this activity is to estimate resource requirements for each
project activity and to use this information to create a project resource
plan. The resource plan helps assemble and deploy resources in the most
effective manner.
For example, you would not want to bring additional programmers onto
the project at a rate faster than you could prepare work for them. Project
managers use a variety of tools to assist in making estimates of project
size and costs. The most widely used method is called COCOMO
(constructive cost model
),
COCOMO predict human resource
requirements for basic, intermediate, and very complex systems.
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4. Developing a preliminary schedule
•
During this activity, you use the information on tasks and resource
availability to assign time estimates to each activity in the work
breakdown structure. These time estimates will enable you to create
target starting and ending dates for the project. Target dates can be
revisited and modified until a schedule is produced that is acceptable to
the customer. Determining an acceptable schedule may require that you
find additional or different resources or that the scope of the project be
changed. The schedule may be represented as a Gantt chart or as a
network diagram.
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5. Developing a communication plan
•
The goal of this activity is to outline the communication procedures
among management, project team members, and the customer. The
communication plan includes when and how written and oral reports will
be provided by the team, how team members will coordinate work, what
messages will be sent to announce the project to interested parties, and
what kinds of information will be shared with vendors and external
contractors involved with the project.
•
It is important that free and open communication occur among all
parties with respect to proprietary information and confidentiality with
the customer (Fuller et al., 2008; Kettelhut, 1991; Kirsch, 2000; Vaidya
nathan, 2013;Verma, 1996).
•
When developing a communication plan, numerous questions must be
answered in order to assure that the plan is comprehensive and
complete, including the following:
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Who are the stakeholders for this project?
•
What information does each stakeholder need?
•
When, and at what interval, does this information need to be produced?
•
What sources will be used to gather and generate this information?
•
Who will collect, store, and verify the accuracy of this information?
•
Who will organize and package this information into a document?
•
Who will be the contact person for each stakeholder should any
questions arise?
•
What format will be used to package this information?
•
What communication medium will be most effective for delivering this
information to the stakeholder?
•
Once these questions are answered for each stakeholder, a
comprehensive communication plan can be developed. In this plan, a
summary of communication documents, work assignments, schedules,
and distribution methods will be outlined.
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6. Determining project standards and procedures
During this activity, you will specify how various deliverables are
produced and tested by you and your project team. For example, the
team must decide which tools to use, how the standard SDLC might be
modified, which SDLC methods will be used, documentation styles (e.g.,
type fonts and margins for user manuals), how team members will report
the status of their assigned activities, and terminology. Setting project
standards and procedures for work acceptance is a way to ensure the
development of a high-quality system. Also, it is much easier to train new
team members when clear standards are in place. Organizational
standards for project management and conduct make the determination
of individual project standards easier and the interchange or sharing of
personnel among different projects feasible
.
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7. Identifying and assessing risk
The goal of this activity is to identify sources of project risk and estimate
the consequences of those risks (Wideman, 1992). Risks might arise from
the use of new technology, prospective
users’
resistance to change,
availability of critical resources, competitive reactions or changes in
regulatory actions due to the construction of a system, or team member
inexperience with technology or the business area. You should
continually try to identify and assess project risk.
8. Creating a preliminary budget
During this phase, you need to create a preliminary budget that outlines
the planned expenses and revenues associated with your project. The
project justification will demonstrate that the benefits are worth these
costs.
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9. Developing a Project Scope Statement
An important activity that occurs near the end of the project planning
phase is the development of the Project Scope Statement. Developed
primarily for the customer, this document outlines work that will be done
and clearly describes what the project will deliver. The Project Scope
Statement is useful to make sure that you, the customer, and other
project team members have a clear understanding of the intended
project size, duration, and outcomes.
10. Setting a Baseline Project Plan
Once all of the prior project planning activities have been completed, you
will be able to develop a Baseline Project Plan. This baseline plan
provides an estimate of the
project’s
tasks and resource requirements
and is used to guide the next project phase
—
execution. As new
information is acquired during project execution, the baseline plan will
continue to be updated.
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Executing the Project:
•
Project execution puts the Baseline Project Plan into action. Within the
context of the SDLC, project execution occurs primarily during the
analysis, design, and implementation phases.
•
1. Executing the Baseline Project Plan:
This means that you initiate the
execution of project activities, acquire and assign resources, orient and
train new team members, keep the project on schedule, and ensure the
quality of project deliverables. This is a formidable task, but a task made
much easier through the use of sound project management techniques.
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2. Monitoring project progress against the Baseline Project Plan
While you execute the Baseline Project Plan, you should monitor your
progress. If the project gets ahead of (or behind) schedule, you may have
to adjust resources, activities, and budgets. Monitoring project activities
can result in modifications to the current plan. Measuring the time and
effort expended on each activity will help you improve the accuracy of
estimations for future projects. It is possible, with project schedule charts
such as Gantt charts, to show progress against a plan, and it is easy with
network diagrams to understand the ramifications (
the possible results
of an action
)of delays in an activity. Monitoring progress also means
that the team leader must evaluate and appraise (
to examine someone
or something in order to judge their qualities, success or needs
)each
team member, occasionally change work assignments or request changes
in personnel, and provide feedback to the
employee’s
supervisor
.
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3. Managing changes to the Baseline Project Plan
You will encounter pressure to make changes to the baseline plan.
Numerous events may initiate a change to the Baseline Project Plan,
including the following possibilities:
•
A slipped completion date for an activity
•
A bungled (to do something wrong, in a careless or stupid way ) activity
that must be redone
•
The identification of a new activity that becomes evident later in the
project
•
An unforeseen change in personnel due to sickness, resignation, or
termination
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4. Maintaining the project workbook
As in all project phases, maintaining complete records of all project
events is necessary. The workbook provides the documentation
new team members require to assimilate (to take in, fit into, or
become similar ) project tasks quickly. It explains why design
decisions were made and is a primary source of information for
producing all project reports.
•
5. Communicating the project status
The project manager is responsible for keeping all stakeholders
—
system developers, managers, and customers
—
abreast (
describes
two or more people who are next to each other and moving in
the same direction
) of the project status.
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Closing Down the project
•
The focus of project closedown is to bring the project to an end. Projects
can conclude with a natural or unnatural termination.
A natural
termination occurs when the requirements of the project have been
met
—
the project has been completed and is a success.
An unnatural
termination occurs when the project is stopped before completion (Keil
et al., 2000). Several events can cause an unnatural termination of a
project.
For example
, it may be learned that the assumption used to
guide the project proved to be false, that the performance of the systems
or development group was somehow inadequate, or that the
requirements are no longer relevant or valid in the
customer’s
business
environment. The most likely reasons for the
unnatural termination
of a
project relate to running out of time or money, or both.
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Representing and Scheduling Project Plans
A project manager has a wide variety of techniques available for
depicting (
to represent or show something in a picture or story)
and
documenting project plans. These planning documents can take the form
of graphical or textual reports, although graphical reports have become
most popular for depicting project plans. The most commonly used
methods are
Gantt charts
and
network diagrams
. Because Gantt charts
do not (typically) show how tasks must be ordered (precedence) but
simply show when a task should begin and when it should end, they are
often more useful for depicting (representing) relatively simple projects
or subparts of a larger project, showing the activities of a single worker,
or monitoring the progress of activities compared to scheduled
completion dates (Figure 3-18). Recall that a network diagram shows the
ordering of activities by connecting a task to its predecessor and
successor tasks. Sometimes a network diagram is preferable; other times
a Gantt chart more easily shows certain aspects of a project. Here are the
key differences between these two charts:
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FIGURE 3-18
Graphical diagrams that depict project plans
(a) A Gantt chart
(b) A network diagram
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Gantt charts visually show the duration of tasks, whereas a network
diagram visually shows the sequence dependencies between tasks.
•
Gantt charts visually show the time overlap of tasks, whereas a network
diagram does not show time overlap but does show which tasks could be
done in parallel.
•
Some forms of Gantt charts can visually show slack time available within
an earliest start and latest finish duration. A network diagram shows this
by data within activity rectangles.
•
Project managers also use textual reports that depict (represent)
resource utilization by task, complexity of the project, and cost
distributions to control activities. For example, Figure 3-19 shows a
screen from Microsoft Project for Windows that summarizes all project
activities, their durations in weeks, and their scheduled starting and
ending dates. Most project managers use computer-based systems to
help develop their graphical and textual reports.
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A project manager will periodically review the status of all ongoing
project task activities to assess whether the activities will be completed
early, on time, or late. If early or late, the duration of the activity,
represented in column 2 of Figure 3-19, can be updated. Once changed,
the scheduled start and finish times of all subsequent tasks will also
change. Making such a change will also alter a Gantt chart or network
diagram used to represent the project tasks. The ability to easily make
changes to a project is a very powerful feature of most project
management environments. It enables the project manager to determine
easily how changes in task duration affect the project completion date. It
is also useful for examining the impact of
“what
if”
scenarios of adding or
reducing resources, such as personnel, for an activity.
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Figure 3.19
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Representing Project Plans:
Project scheduling and management require
that time, costs, and resources be controlled.
Resources are any person,
group of people, piece of equipment, or material
used in accomplishing an
activity. Network diagramming is a
critical path scheduling
technique used
for controlling resources.
A critical path refers to a sequence of task
activities whose order and durations directly affect the completion date of
a project
. A network diagram is one of the most widely used and best-
known scheduling methods. You would use a network diagram when tasks
•
are well defined and have a clear beginning and end point,
•
can be worked on independently of other tasks,
•
are ordered, and
•
serve the purpose of the project
•
A major strength of network diagramming is its ability to represent how
completion times vary for activities. Because of this, it is more often used
than Gantt charts to manage projects such as information systems
development, where variability in the duration of activities is the norm.
Network diagrams are composed of circles or rectangles representing
activities and connecting arrows showing required work flows, as
illustrated in Figure 3-20.
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Calculating Expected time durations using PERT:(Program Evaluation Review
Technique)
•
One of the most difficult and most error-prone activities when constructing a
project schedule is the determination of the time duration for each task within a
work breakdown structure. It is particularly problematic to make these
estimates when there is a high degree of complexity and uncertainty about a
task.
PERT is a technique that uses optimistic, pessimistic, and realistic time
estimates to calculate the expected time for a particular task. This technique can
help you to obtain a better time estimate when there is some uncertainty as to
how much time a task will require to be completed. The
optimistic
(o) and
pessimistic
(p) times reflect the minimum and maximum possible periods of
time for an activity to be completed. The realistic (r) time, or most likely time,
reflects the project
manager’s
“best
guess”
of the amount of time the activity
actually will require for completion. Once each of these estimates is made for an
activity, an expected time (ET) can be calculated. Because the expected
completion time should be closest to the realistic (r) time, it is typically weighted
four times more than the optimistic (o) and pessimistic (p) times. Once you add
these values together, it must be divided by six to determine the ET. This
equation is shown in the following formula:
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where
•
ET = expected time for the completion for an activity
•
o = optimistic completion time for an activity
•
r = realistic completion time for an activity
•
p = pessimistic completion time for an activity
•
For example, suppose that your instructor asked you to calculate an
expected time for the completion of an upcoming programming
assignment. For this assignment, you estimate an optimistic time of two
hours, a pessimistic time of eight hours, and a most likely time of six
hours. Using PERT, the expected time for completing this assignment is
5.67 hours
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Using project management software
•
A wide variety of automated project management tools is available
to help you manage a development project. New versions of these
tools are continuously being developed and released by software
vendors. Most of the available tools have a set of common features
that include the ability to define and order tasks, assign resources
to tasks, and easily modify tasks and resources. Project
management tools are available to run on IBM-compatible
personal computers, the Macintosh, and larger mainframe and
workstation-based systems. These systems vary in the number of
task activities supported, the complexity of relationships, system
processing and storage requirements, and, of course, cost. For
example, numerous shareware project management programs
(e.g., OpenProj, Bugzilla, and eGroupWare) can be downloaded
from the web (e.g., at www.download.com).
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